Handbrake turn Europe's cities take on the car

In Paris, Barcelona and Brussels, authorities are adopting different approaches in a bid to reduce congestion and cut air pollution

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Most European cities were not designed for cars. Their streets were once a place for a host of varied human activities: working, trading, socialising, playing. Getting from A to B, other than on foot, was a small part of the mix.

The arrival of the car in large numbers on Europe's roads ended that in the 1950s. Streets were now for traffic, which must reach its destination as fast as possible ... and have somewhere to park once it gets there. Cities changed, radically.

A fightback is now well under way, driven by a pressing need to cut air pollution and combat the climate crisis, and a wish to reclaim cities as pleasant places to live. Most major European cities now have schemes in place to reduce road traffic.

Strategies vary, from congestion charges, parking restrictions and limited traffic zones to increased investment in public transport and cycle lanes. Evidence suggests that a combination of carrot and stick-and - works best.

consultation Cars emit vast amounts of pollution. Road transport accounts for a fifth of EU emissions, and cars are responsible for 61% of that. With an average occupancy rate across the EU of just 1.6 people a car, they are also a hugely inefficient use of public space.

But traffic reduction policies often spark fierce resistance. For many, especially older people, cars are not just vehicles, but symbols of personal freedom and success. In several cities, attempts to restrict car use have opened a new front in the culture wars.

So for many different reasons, getting cars out of Europe's cities is not easy. Here Guardian writers look at three: Paris, where car use has almost halved; Barcelona, where a new mayor has his doubts; and Brussels, where bureaucracy is not helping.

Barcelona